Cannabinoids

[salmonetin]

...this thread its dedicated to MAR on Chumajek Forum...

...sigues confundiendo cbn con cbd... ...fijate en la imagen veras de donde viene el cbd...

...mas info del tema y en español en el link de aqui debajo... ...una vez en la pagina arriba a la derecha puedes ponerlo en español... ...sorri RIU for talk a bit in spanish...

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/cannabinoids Cannabinoids

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/endocannabinoid-system Endocannabinoid - System

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/terpenes Terpenes

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/flavonoids Flavonoids

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/comparative-study-for-quantification-thc Comparative-Study-For-Quantification-THC

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/testing-methods Testing-Methods

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/beneficios-nutricionales-semillas-canamo Beneficios-Nutricionales-Semillas-Cañamo

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/contaminantes-en-cannabis Contaminantes-En-Cannabis

Salud..os de 99...

 

[salmonetin]

...common... ...nobody?....

...give me a hand with transcriptions...

...well at least i try... ...maybe someday... ...another message bottle to ocean....

...dreams... ...only dreams....

salud..os

 

[epicfail]

Here is one. I was bored, might not be perfect.

good luck with the rest.

Cannabinoid Profile: Cannabidiolic Acid (CBDA)

0:01
do you know your medicine?
0:05
weed maps and SC aboratories bring you an educational series on the science of clean and safe cannabis.
today's Cannabinoid profile is on cannabidiolic acid.
0:19
CBD or cannabidiol carboxylic acid
0:27
is an acidic cannabinoid. acidic cannabinoids are what is actually produced by the plant.
0:34
it's a precursor for CBD cannabidiol. it's the acid form, and again just like THCA changes to THC in the heating process.
0:43
CBDA changes to CBD with the heating process.
0:46
interestingly enough CBDA also has been found to have
0:50
some properties of it own and one of the properties that it's been found to have
0:55
is what we call
0:55
antiproliferative meaning it helps prevent
0:59
cells especially cancer cells from proliferating.
1:02
it's also appears to have some anti-inflammatory
1:06
properties as well. not a lot of studies have been done on
1:10
CBDA but there are some patients using it for its anti-inflammatory and
1:15
anti-tumor properties and again you're using it in the raw form, CDDA Form
1:19
and usually processing that in juice or some type of food without heating it up
1:25
and so that it stays in that natural raw form without changing
1:28
CBD. certainly it warrants much more research
1:32
as it may have benefits beyond
1:36
that we already know.
1:39
CBDA is is a part of the acidic class of cannabinoids including THCA CBCA
1:45
THCVA. the acidic cannabinoids are produced in the plant from
1:49
a common precursor known as cannabigerolic acid
1:53
cannabigerolic acid is CBGA three different enzyme catalysed reactions
1:58
you'll you'll make CBDA
2:01
from CVGA with with the CBDA
2:05
synthes what an enzyme's called... enzymes what would allows
2:08
cannabis plants or any living thing to make new chemicals
2:13
in conditions which otherwise would not support that chemical being produced.
2:18
here we have the synthetic pathway in the plant by which
2:20
CBDA is produced, we start out with geranyl pyrophosphate and
2:24
olivetolic acid that combine in another enzyme catalysed reaction
2:28
to form the cannabigerolic acid or CBGA. this is the structure of
2:32
cannabigerolic acid in you see this long chain of carbon molecules
2:35
these carbon molecules are able to bend in and form rings
2:39
and and other structures that
2:42
allow it to be the precursor for all these other compounds we see
2:46
the compound of interest rate now is CBDA
2:49
which is made by the CBDA synthes and here's the structure of it.
2:52
its very similar to THC which we all recognize
2:55
except for the THCA this ring has closed
2:59
and with CBDA the ring is open and
3:03
umm we have this carboxylic acid over here COOH
3:06
COOH will release
3:09
at about 80 degrees Celsius and it will release itself as carbon dioxide
3:14
and form CBd.
3:16
SC labs test for CBDA using high-performance liquid chromatography
3:19
we use this over the other method that is in common practice
3:23
GC or gas chromatography. the problem with gas chromatography is that it uses heat in the
3:28
process and as I said
3:29
the heat takes CBA and makes in the CBD
3:32
so the problem with gas chromatography is that you cant get any information at
3:36
all on on the amount of CBDA that is actually in the plant and its very important to know
3:41
because there are very different effects
3:44
in the body between CBDA and CBD especially if you're eating the product or
3:49
your your
3:50
you're not smoking the cannabis you're not going to
3:54
convert that CBDA in the CBD so it's going into your body
3:58
as CBDA. with the information on CBD patients can make a
4:01
a much more informed decision on which cannabinoids they choose to ingested into their
4:05
body and what effects that cannabis is going to have on them.
4:07
there hasn't been enough research on CBDA, CBD has received quite a bit research
4:12
CBDA the results that that are out there are pretty promising
4:16
so hopefully with the testing that SC labs is doing here to inspire more
4:20
researchers
4:20
and and and breeders and and patience to take notice of CBdA and really unlock
4:26
the true potential of the cannabinoid

 

[salmonetin]

...big thanks Epicfail... ...i need these luck for the rest...

one note....times are not as important ... what is important is the plain transcript in English...
...I put time as well come in automatic transcripts youtube...

...but with times its more easy for me make maybe a future subtitle...

...animense.. es gratis...

PD.. Epicfail...I owe you one.... ...if i can do something for you... tell me

...and sorry for my bad bad english...

Salud..os..

 

[salmonetin]

What are Cannabinoids? Where can Cannabinoids be found?

The word cannabinoids refers to every chemical substance, regardless its origin or structure, that joins the cannabinoid receptors of the body and brain and that have similar effects to those produced by the plant Cannabis Sativa L.
We know it is a large and varied group of substances that can be classified in several ways, but the most useful way to understand the cannabinoid diversity is the following:

Fitocannabinoids

Fitocannabinoids make reference to the kinds of compounds characterised by 21 carbon atoms which only show in nature in the plant Cannabis Sativa L.
Around 70 Fitocannabinoids have already been found, including their Acidic and Neutral Forms, their Analogous and other Transformation Products.
The plant is just able to synthesise the Fitocannabinoids directly in their Non-Psychoactive Forms.
Therefore, the main Fitocannabinoids present in Fresh Plant Material are Δ9-THCA, CBDA, CBGA y CBCA.

However, the Carboxyl Group is not very stable and it is easily lost as CO2 under the influence of Heat or Light, which causes the transformation in the Active Neutral Forms.

The Acidic Fitocannabinoids suffer Partial Decarboxylation in the Drying and Curing Process of buds; subsequently, Acidic Fitocannabinoids and some of their Active Neutral Forms (Δ9-THC, CBD, CBG y CBC) are mainly found in the Plant Dry Material.
A Large Drying Process of the Plant Material would generate the reduction of Acidic Fitocannabinoids and the increase of the Neutral Ones.

When the plant is smoked or cooked every Acidic Cannabinoid suffers Decarboxylation in its Neutral Form due to the influence of Heat.

The method normally used in the Decarboxylation of small quantities of cannabis plant material (i.e. 20 grams) consists of placing it in an oven at 120ºC for a minimum period of 20 minutes.
Cooking the cannabis in butter or oil will also initiate the process for as long as necessary.

It is interesting that the most studied Fitocannabinoid, Δ9-THC, in its Neutral Form is the main one responsible for the Psychoactive Effects caused by cannabis intake, while it Does Not Show Psychoactive Activity in its Acidic Form Δ9-THCA.

Endocannabinoids

Endocannabinoids are produced by almost every organism in the animal kingdom.
They are natural endogenous ligands produced by human and animal organisms that join the cannabinoid receptors.
Both endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors form the endocannabinoid system, which is involved in a large variety of physiological processes, such as the control of the neurotransmitters release, the pain perception and the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and liver functions.
The two main endocannabinoids found are the Anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine or ANA) and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG).
Endocannabinoids are the molecules that act as natural key for the main cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 and cause their activation and subsequent action.
CB1 is mainly located in the central nervous system and it is responsible for the effects mediated by neuronal processes and psychoactive 'secondary' effects.
CB2 is mainly located in the immune system and it is responsible for the immunomodulatory effects.
CB2 receptors have been recently discovered in the central nervous system, the microglial cells and they seem to be in certain neurons as well.
However, it remains a quite controversial and debated issue.

Synthetic Cannabinoids

The main difference between Fitocannabinoids, Endocannabinoids and Synthetic Cannabinoids is that the latter are fully synthetic and created in the laboratory.
An example of it would be Dronabinol (Δ9-THC synthetic), which is the active compound of MARINOL®, a medicine that comes in capsules and has been consumed in the US since 1985 to prevent nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and loss of weight.
Another example would be Nabilone, that is the active substance of CESAMET®, a medicine approved for the nausea and vomiting control caused by cancer chemotherapy.
Both medicinal products have been approved for these purposes in the US, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Canada and Spain. More recently, some selective cannabinoids for CB1 receptor, such as JHW-018 y JHW-073, have been used as psychoactive ingredients in smart drugs marketed as imitations of cannabis effects.
One of the names used for these drugs is “Spice”.
There is not much information about the effects of Synthetic Cannabinoids in humans, although some of them have already shown to cause moredistress and panic than Fitocannabinoids.
Synthetic Cannabinoids have been designed as Research Tools for Cannabinoid Scientific Studies, however, they have never shown to be reliable for human consumption in Clinical Testing.
In theory, they should have never left the laboratory where they where designed and synthesised.

...CONTINUE...

 

[salmonetin]

What part of the plant are Fitocannabinoids produced in?

It has been largely accepted that Fitocannabinoids are Mainly or Fully Synthesised and Stored in Small Structures called Glandular Trichomes.
Trichomes are present in most of the aerial surfaces of the plant.
These Structures together with Cannabinoids are also found in most of Terpenes (Monoterpenes and Sesquiterpenes), which provide each species with a different Aroma, depending on their number and combination.
This is the reason why it can be said that Trichomes are the most interesting part of Cannabis for Pharmacognosy Experts.

Cannabis Researchers speak of Two Types of Non-Glandular Trichome (Simple Unicellular Trichomes and Natural Killer Trichomes) that have not been associated with Terpenoid Biosynthesis.
Three Types of Glandular Trichome have been found in Female Cannabis Plants: Bulbous Trichome, Capitate-Sessile Trichome and Capitate-Stalked Trichome.
It has been shown that male plants have a Fourth Type of Glandular Trichome, the Glandular Trichome of the Anthers which only has been found in the Anthers.

Even though Trichomes can be found in any Male and Female Plant, its highest Fitocannabinoid concentration (speaking in % of dry plant material) can be found in Female Inflorescence's Bracts reaching 20% and 25%.
Fitocannabinoids are more abundant in Capitate-Stalked Trichome.
This kind of Trichome appears during the Flowering Period and forms the thickest cover in Pistilated Flowers' Bracts.
A high concentration of Capitate-Stalked Trichome can also be found in the Small Leaves that go with Flowers.
Fitocannabinoids are less abundant in Plant Foliage Leaves and Stems, while they are quite rare or non-existent in the Roots.
There are not qualitative dissimilitudes within Fitocannabinoids between the different parts of the plant, but there are quantitative ones.
The role of Fitocannabinoids in plants is unclear.
The most plausible Hypothesis is that they offer Defensive Properties against Biotic Stress (Insects, Bacteria and Fungi) and Abiotic Stress (Drying and Ultraviolet Radiation) of the Plant.

How are Fitocannabinoids produced in the plant?

Neither the pathway nor the location of Fitocannabinoid Biosynthesis are fully known, however, some authors suggest that they are Synthesised in Specialised Disc Cells (Picture 1) that appear in Glandular Trichomes.
They are subsequently accumulated in the Adjacent Secretory Cavity and finally emitted as Resins, or their Synthases are Directly Secreted in the Secretory Cavity.

An Important Structural Variation of Fitocannabinoids is found in the Lateral Alkyl Chain.
In fact, the Alky Group in the most common Fitocannabinoid, Δ9-Tetrahidrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), is a Pentyl, while it is a Propyl in its counterpart Δ9-THCV, named using the suffix “Varin” or “Varol”.

Such variations are explained by the fact that the Geranyl Pyrophosphate can be combined with the Olivetolic Acid and/or the Divarinic Acid.

This is the Starting Point in the Fitocannabinoids' Biosynthesis, which results in the formation of the Intermediate Fitocannabinoids' Cannabigerolic Acid (CBGA) and / or Cannabigevarolic Acid (CBGVA) respectively.
The Intermediate CBGA / CBGVA is subsequently processed by Δ9-THC Synthase, which converts CBGA / CBGVA into Δ9-THCA / Δ9-THCVA.
Both the proportion between the Propyl and Pentyl Intermediate Fitocannabinoids and the presence of Δ9-THC Synthase, are genetically determined.

All plants express CBC Synthase, which fights for the same Intermediate CBGA / CBGVA as CBD Synthase and / or Δ9-THC Synthase.

In ‘normal’ cannabis plants CBC Synthase is active mainly in the Early Stage, which causes the detection of a higher proportion of this precise Fitocannabinoid during the Vegetative Stage, if compared with the Reproductive Stage.

The Products resulting from the Acidic Fitocannabinoids Degradation, such as CBNA (Cannabinolic Acid) and CBLA (Cannabicyclolic Acid) appear as Artefacts and are derived from several factors, namely; Ultraviolet Light, Oxidation and Isomerisation.

The Biosynthetic Pathway for Fitocannabinoids Production is shown in Picture 2.

Basic Introduction to the main Non-Psychoactive Fitocannabinoids

The cannabis plant contains many Fitocannabinoids with weak or Null Psychoactivity, which, from a Therapeutic Point of View, could be much more promising than Δ9-THC.

CBD is an important Non-Psychotropic Fitocannabinoid that produces a large amount of Pharmacological, Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects, among others, transmitted by several mechanisms.
It has been clinically proven in cases of Anxiety, Psychosis and Movement Disorders, as well as to alleviate Neuropathic Pain in individuals suffering from multiple Sclerosis (it is sometimes combined with Δ9-THC in a 1:1 proportion, as happens in SATIVEX®).

CBDA does not join CB1 and CB2 Cannabinoid Receptors, although it is an inhibitor of selective COX-2 with Anti-Inflammatory Effects.
However, it can join certain Vanilloids Receptors, but its effects are not fully understood yet. In addition to this, it does act against proliferation.

CBG acts against Proliferation and as an Antibacterial.
It is a Ligand from CB2 Cannabinoid Receptor and an Inhibitor of the Re-Absorption of Anandamide.
Furthermore, it is a Vanilloids Ligand.
CBC can cause Hypothermia, Sedation and Hypoactivity in Mice.
It also acts as an Anti-Inflammatory, an Antimicrobial and a Soft Analgesic.
Moreover, it is a powerful Antagonist of Vanilloids and a Weak Inhibitor of the Re-Absorption of Anandamide.

 

[salmonetin]

Terpenes - other Active Substances of Cannabis

This article will set out two types of secondary metabolites that are biosynthesised by the plant Cannabis sativa L. and probably produce synergy with the effects cannabinoids.

It is being observed that Cannabinoids are not the only Active Substances in the Cannabis Plant.
Certain Studies showed that there were differences between the effects produced by Pure Cannabinoids and the ones caused by the plant, although Cannabinoids are administered in equal doses in both cases.
These observations point to the existence of Other Active Substances in the Cannabis Plant, which have an intrinsic Pharmacological Action and / or Can Modify the Pharmacological Action of Cannabinoids.
Two Groups of Active Substances have been identified presently; Terpenes and Flavonoids, both of which appear in sufficient concentrations to have Pharmacological Activity.
From a scientific perspective, neither which kind of specific compounds are capable of producing Synergy with Cannabinoids, nor how they are formed, have been proven.
Both Terpenes and Flavonoids are under the increasing attention of the Scientific and Medical Community due to their proven Pharmacological Actions.
In the following paragraphs, we will try to show the current state of the Studies about the Biological and Synergistic Activity between these Active Substances and the Cannabinoids.

Terpenes


Terpenes are Volatile Organic Compounds formed by the union of Hydrocarbon of 5 Carbon Atoms, known as Isoprene.
The Smallest and Most Volatile Compounds are Monoterpenes, which are Biosynthesised by the union of Two Isoprene Molecules.
The Biggest and Least Volatile are Biosynthesised by the union of Three or More Isoprene Molecules.
The Sesquiterpenes are next in the Chain, which are formed by the union of Three Isoprene Molecules.
Terpenes are Secondary Metabolites, which provide the plant with its Organoleptic Characteristics (Aroma and Flavour) and that constitutes most of the Essential Oil produced by Aromatic Plants.

Terpenes and Cannabinoids share their Biosynthetic Pathways and, in fact, Cannabinoids are Terpeno-Fenolic Compounds.
In the Cannabis Plant, Terpenes also share the Biosynthesis and Accumulation Spaces.
Thus, both types of compounds are Biosynthesised in the Glandular Trichomes of Leaves and Flowers and are accumulated in large proportions in the Exuded Resin.
In any case, it seems that certain Non-Capitular Glandular Trichomes, which are more abundant in Leaves Surface, are Specialised in Synthesising Terpenes.
It has been shown that the ratio between Monoterpenes and Sesquiterpenes in Leaves and Flowers is rather different.
This is due to the dominance of Sessile Trichomes in Leaves, which are more specialised in Synthesising Terpenes, while Capitate Trichomes are more abundant in Flowers and are Specialised in the Synthesis of Monoterpenes and Cannabinoids.
The proportion of Terpenes in the plant is normally less than 1%, potentially achieving up to 10% of the Resin Composition.

Terpenes have different Functions in Plants.

The two main ones are the protection against insects and herbivorous animals, as well as protection against high temperatures.
Plants react by producing Terpenes in the areas affected through the action of insects and herbivorous animals, which act as bitter compounds that repel them or even as pesticides in some cases.
Monoterpenes, which are More Volatile, dominate in Inflorescences to repel insects.
Sesquiterpenes, which are more bitter, are more abundant on Leaves acting against herbivorous animals.
Some Terpenes can act a Decoy in some plants, attracting either pollinating insects or predatory ones that feed on herbivorous insects, which are beneficial for the plant.
As plants sense a temperature rise, they begin synthesising more Terpenes and under high temperatures during night or day, more Terpenes are released.
Terpenes evaporate at high temperatures, producing Airflows that Cool the Plant and Lessen Transpiration, preventing the plant from Drainage.
In the Cannabis Plant, Terpenes are exuded in the Resin and confer it with the sticky and viscous quality that will get some insects trapped and immobilised, thus, acting as a Protection against Insects and High Temperatures.
Hence, it is easy to observe that Cannabis Plants Smell Stronger during the First Morning Hours than during the warmest part of the day as a large amount of Terpenes evaporate.
This is the reason why it is Recommended Harvesting the Mature Plants during the First Morning Hours, in order To Get the Maximum Production of Essential Oil.

Cannabis Essential Oil is mainly formed by a high proportion of Monoterpenes and a variable proportion of Sesquiterpene.
Such proportions, together with the Extraction Performance, will be Mainly Affected by the Degree of Drying that Cannabis achieves when Processed for the Extraction of the Essential Oil.
In fact, the Extraction Performance of the Essential Oil by Steam Distillation of the Fresh Plant is lower than 1%, with a composition of 80-90% in Monoterpenes and 10-20% in Sesquiterpenes.
However, it will be around 0.1% in the Dried Plant and its composition will be lower in Monoterpenes, where it can reach 50% in Sesquiterpenes, due to the fact that Monoterpenes are Very Volatile and Evaporate Quickly during the Plant Drying Process.
Usually, the Essential Oil obtained from Industrial Hemp, which contains many Leaves and it is normally processed Dried, is chiefly formed by Sesquiterpenes.
Some Sesquiterpenes remain in the plant even after a 15 minute Decarboxilation Treatment at 120ºC.
This is the case for Cariofileno, which has a moist soil aroma characteristic of baked or cooked cannabis.
Likewise, the evaporation of Monoterpenes during the Drying Process is responsible for the transformation of the aroma from the fresh plant to a Well-Dried One, although the change in Taste comes from the Degradation of Chlorophylls.
Thus, Fresh Plants have Minty, Citric, Fruity, etc. Aromas that soften when Dried.

Nevertheless, Terpenes are not just responsible of the Aroma, but they also have an important Biological and Therapeutic Activity.
It has been scientifically shown that the Essential Oils of Plants have Therapeutic Properties and are the Pharmacological Base of Aromatherapy.
These Oils and Pure Terpenes can also be used as Flavourings in the Food Industry, as they are Non-Toxic Compounds.
The Therapeutic Properties will specifically depend on the Terpene in question.

The most abundant Terpenes in the Cannabis Plant that form most of its Essential Oil are the Monoterpenes Myrcene, Pinene, Limonene, Linalool, Eucalyptol and Sesquiterpene Caryophyllene.
The variation in the ratio between these Terpenes is what produces the wide range of Aromas that can be found in the Cannabis Plant.
It has been recently discovered that they can also take part in the varied Pharmacologic Effects caused by Cannabis, as well as generate Synergy with Cannabinoids.

 

[salmonetin]

Terpenes in Detail

Myrcene

Myrcene, or β-myrcene, is a lineal monoterpene carbohydrate and is the main component of the essential oil of wild thyme, comprising 40% of its overall composition.
It is found at high concentrations in other plants such as hop, mango and limoncillo, among others.
Myrcene acts as an anti-inflammatory interfering in the prostaglandins' metabolic pathway. Myrcene is the sedative active ingredient of the hop, which is used in herbalism and in natural therapies to help with sleeping disorders.

Studies on laboratory animals have shown myrcene's sedative, hypnotic, analgesic and muscle relaxant properties.
Its mechanism of action has not been totally unveiled yet, but it could be that it has adrenergic and/or opiod effects, as the analgesic effect is blocked by an antagonistic opioid (naloxone).
It has also been shown that the myrcene alters the blood-brain barrier, favouring the penetration of cannabinoids in the brain and increasing the effects.

In a recent study, it was shown that analysing the composition of terpenes in indica varieties against sativa varieties, a greater presence of myrceno was found in indica varieties; up to 60%-80% of their composition.
It has been accepted that indica varieties are more relaxing and sedative than sativa varieties. Bringing together all the evidence, we can speculate that the effect of myrceno combined with THC can be highly physical and hypnotic, which is common in indica varieties.

Pinene

Pinene is the common name of two isomer bicyclic monoterpenoids, α-pinene, β-pinene, which are main components of the pine resin and of other conifers, which gives it the name, although it is also the terpene most widely distributed in nature.
In fact, it is not only found in the plant kingdom, as the two compounds are part of the chemical communication system of insects and also act as insect repellent.

These components have significant antibiotic effects, even against antibiotic resistant pathogens.
Another therapeutic activities attributed to them is that of anti-inflammatories, blocking the inflammatory signal of prostagladins in a similar way to myrcene.
They also act as bronchodilator in humans when they are inhaled in low concentrations.
This effect could produce a larger absorption of cannabinoids when smoking or when vaporizing cannabis with a product rich in alpha and beta pineno, which would increase plasma concentrations and, subsequently, the cannabinoids effect.

A-pinene is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that may be beneficial for memory and may reduce the negative THC effects on it, although this is no more than a mere assumption at this point.
A-pineno has also served as biosynthetic base for the ligands of the cannabinoid receptor CB2. Pineno seems to be quite balanced within the different cannabis varieties representing around the 10% of the terpenes group and not exceeding 15-20%.

Limonene

Limonene is a cyclic carbohydrate and a main component of the essential oil of lemons and other citrus fruits, which is where its name comes from.
It is also the second most widely distributed terpene in nature and it is an intermediate product in other terpenes' biosynthesis.
In contrast with pinene, limonene is not found in insects, yet it still has some repellent and insecticide effects.
It is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries as flavouring.
Recent researche has been carried out to look at its usefulness in formulations of dermal patches, to improve the transdermal absorption of other active substances.

Limonene is used in cosmetics and household cleaning product industries as a fragrance and as a biodegradable, organic and environmentally friendly solvent. It is quickly absorbed by inhalation or by the skin and it is metabolised quickly, however there are indications it can accumulate in fatty tissues, such as brain tissue.
Limonene is not toxic, nor does it cause skin irritation, yet some of its products, which are oxidised by contact with air, provoke skin and mucous irritation.
This lead to 3% of people exposed to high doses for a long period of time, such as the workers of the paint industry, suffering from dermatitis.
Nonetheless, limomene has therapeutic effects in certain diseases and some antiseptic properties, mainly against the bacteria responsible for acne.

Studies on laboratory animals suggest that limonene has anxiolytic effects, causing a rise of serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitters in the brain.
It has been shown that the dispersal of limonene in the environment has produced a decrease in the depressive symptoms of hospital patients in addition to a strong immunostimulation. Linonene also procuces apoptosis, also called cell death, in breast cancer cells.
Its effectiveness is being tested in clinical trials. In adition to this, the use of limomeno against gastroesophageal reflux has been patented.

...CONTINUE...

 

[salmonetin]

Linalool

Linalool is a lineal monoterpene alcohol resulting from the main substances of the essential oil of lavender, but it is also found in many other plants.
It is widely used as fragrance in cleaning and hygiene products, as an intermediate product in the chemical industry and as insecticide against flies and cockroaches, however it is not useful as an insect repellent.
The essential oil of lavender eases skin burns and can even reduce the morphine intake needed, when inhaled by patients with post-operative treatment.
These effects are attributed to linalool for being the main component of the essential oil of lavender, as after its ingestion, other substances for example the monoterpene linalyl acetate, hydrolyses into linalool.
Linalool in itself has shown to have anxiolytic effects on a comparable level to local anaesthetics such as lidocaine or menthol.
It also demonstrates analgesic effects in laboratory animals when mediated by adenosine A2A and glutamate receptors, as well as sedative effects by inhalation.

In addition to these effects, linalool has anti-seizure properties that inhibit glutamatergic activity and is also able to decrease the release of neurotransmitters of the neurons under glutamate stimulation.
In this way, we could argue that the sedative, anxiolytic and anti-seizure effects have their mechanism of action based on the modulation of the glutamate and GABA neurotransmitters, similarly to the way the cannabinoides act.
Thus, a cannabis plant with both THC and linalool will probably produce a significant sedative and analgesic effect, due to the synergy between the two compounds.
However, a cannabis plant with CBD and/or THCV and/or CBDV and linalool will probably produce a synergistic effect as an anti-seizure medication, which would be useful in cases of epilepsy, even as a preventive measure.

Eucalyptol

Eucalyptol, also known as 1,8-cineol, is a monoterpene ester that makes up almost the totality of the essential oil of eucalyptus, from which it gets its name, but it is also widely distributed in the plant kingdom.
It acts as an insect repellent and insecticide, although it is produced by certain orchids to attract bees.
Eucalyptol is used as food additive to add flavour.
Products containing eucalyptol need to have less than 0,002% of it, as the intake of greater amounts can affect the central nervous system (CNS) and might even be psychotropic.
Eucalyptol is widely used in the cosmetic and chemical industries, but it is still classified as a toxin that might have a negative influence on reproduction.
Some researches have shown certain clinical efficacy of eucalyptol for treating asthma and sinusitis, as well as being an anti-inflammatory and a local analgesic.

Furthermore, it has been shown to have immunosuppressive and in vitro anti-leukaemia properties.
In the aforementioned study about terpenes profiles in different varieties of cannabis, it was found that eucalyptol, carene, phellandrene and terpinolene are terpenes found almost exclusively in sativa varieties.
Eucalyptol, carene and felandrene are found in proportions close to 5%, whereas terpinolene was around 20% of the total in sativa varieties, while they will not go over 1% in indica varieties.
Eucalyptol is the only one of these compounds that has been shown to be active in the CNS, which is almost unique to sativa varieties and that such varieties have a euphoriant effect different from indica varieties.
From this we can hypothesise that the synergy between THC and eucalyptol is what makes a difference regarding the qualitative difference of the activating effect of sativa varieties.
That being said, the myrcene could also be responsible for the hypnotic effect of indica varieties.

Caryophyllene

Caryophyllene is what we call the mixture of three compounds: α-caryophyllene or humulene, β-caryophyllene, which is the main component of the essential oil of black pepper, and caryophyllene oxide, a result of the oxidation of both melissa and eucalyptus.
All of them are bicyclic sesquiterpenic carbohydrate and are present in all cannabis varieties.
In fact, caryophyllene oxide is the signal detected by sniffer dogs trained to find cannabis.
We have to bear in mind that it is one of the less volatile terpenes and that, as mentioned earlier, it resists the process of decarboxylation, thus becoming the terpene most easily found in cannabis extracts.
In the plant kingdom, β-caryophyllene plays an evolutive survivalism role by increasing its release and biosynthesis in plants parasitised by herbivorous insects, so it will attract other predatory insects to reduce the damage produced by herbivores.
Caryophyllene oxide takes part in the defence system of the plants, functioning as an insecticide and an antifungal. It should be noted that both caryophyillene and CBC join in the defence against fungi attacks.
Moreover, caryophyllene oxide has shown a clinic effectiveness against certain cases of fungal infection.
B-caryophyllene, has anti-inflammatory properties and operates at two levels, one is the blocking of the prostaglandins' inflammatory pathway, as happens with myrcene and pinene, and the other is as CB2 cannabinoid receptor antagonist.

This last mode of action makes β-caryophyllene the first non-cannabinoid molecule with cannabinomimetic functioning, which is also authorised for human consumption and thus open to a wide therapeutic applicability. Its anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, as well as its effectiveness in the treatment of atypical dermatitis in animal models has been proven, although not yet in humans.
Due to its effects on the prostaglandins inflammatory pathway, caryophyllene also has anticoagulant properties and unexpected gastric protection effects.
Gastric ulcers are a secondary effect of certain anti-inflammatory prostaglandins antagonists, which limit their therapeutic effectiveness, however, caryophyllene does not only have this secondary effect, but it can also act as protection against their appearance.
Gathering all this evidence, we may predict that cannabis containing both CBD and caryophyllene will have significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties acting on prostaglandins and cannabinoid receptors.

 

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Flavonoids
Flavonoids are secondary polyphenolic metabolites that commonly have a ketone group and yellowish pigments, after which they are named (from the Latin flavus, “yellow”).
Flavonoids can be divided in four main groups: flavonoids, isoflavonoids, neoflavonoids and anthocyanins.
Nevertheless, for the sake of simplicity, we will refer to them all with the common term of flavonoids.

Flavonoid biosynthesis follows the phenylpropane metabolic pathway, in which the cumaril-SCoA is formed from the aminoacid known as phenylalanine, which is mixed together with the malonil-CoA form a group of substances known as chalcones.
These are the backbone of every flavonoid and anthocyanin's biosynthesis.

This reaction is catalysed by the chalcone synthase enzyme, which belongs to the family of the polyketide synthases (PKS).
This PKS family also contains olivetol synthase, responsible for the synthesis of cannabinoids.

Flavonoids cover a wide range of functions in plants, although they mainly act as yellow pigments in petals and leaves to attract pollinating insects.
They might also appear as bluish pigments (anthocyanins) to receive certain wavelengths of light, which permits the plant to be aware of the photoperiod.
Many of these flavonoids also protect the plant by being involved in the filtering of ultraviolet light.
On a cellular level, flavonoids act as regulators of the cellular cycle.
Some of them are synthesised in the plant's roots and have crucial roles in establishing symbiotic fungi or mycorrhyzas, while at the same time they fight the infections caused by pathogenic fungi.

Flavonoids have relevant pharmacological activities on 'in vitro' models, such as; antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antibiotic, antidiarrheal and against cancer.
It has not been possible to prove an antioxidant activity on 'in vivo' models, just as it has not been possible to relate it to any effectiveness against cancer.
Some studies seem to indicate that a diet rich in flavonoids can diminish the risk of cancer, but there are no significant statistics regarding this claim.

We can find different types of flavonoids in the cannabis plant, such as; cannflavine A, cannflavine B, cannflavine C, vitexin, isovitexin, apigenin, kaempferol, quercetin, luteolin and orientin.
The distribution of these in the plant, varies depending on the type of flavonoid, but none have been found in the root system of the cannabis plant.
The total content of flavonoids in the cannabis' leaves and flowers can reach 2,5% of its dry weight, while it is almost non existent in seeds and roots.
Some studies suggest that the distribution and concentration of flavonoids in the cannabis plant can be useful from a chemical and taxonomic point of view.
The following is a brief description on the therapeutic properties of these flavonoids.
Most of these compounds are soluble in water, which could explain certain therapeutic effects of the herbal infusions and the decoctions in cannabis water, as the cannabinoids are partly soluble in water.

Cannflavins A, B and C

They have anti-inflammatory activity due to the fact that they inhibit the prostaglandins' inflammatory pathway.
This mechanism is shared with other terpenoids which are present in the cannabis plant, providing a better synergy and anti-inflammatory effect to that coming from cannabinoids.

Vitexin and Isovitexin

Therapeutic applicability for gout, inhibiting the thyroid peroxidase.

Kaempferol

It seems to have an antidepressant effect.
A rich diet in kaempferol may reduce the risk of cancer and some coronary diseases.
Although some are opposed, other theories state that cannabis seems to have certain antidepressant effects in some cases, so it could be that there is a synergistic effect coming from the combination of kaempferol and cannabinoids.

Apigenin

It has shown to decrease the secondary effects of ciclosporin A, an immunosuppressive administered during organ transplants to avoid the rejection of the transplanted organ.
It has also been proven that apigenin is one of the few substances capable of stimulating the monoamine transporter, altering the neurotransmitter levels.
It has recently become clear that apigenin acts as an anxiolytic and sedative on the GABA receptors.
The fact that this effect is shared by the cannabinoids bring us to a possible synergy between axiolict and sedative effects of cannabinoids.

Quercitin

It inhibits viral enzymes and it can have antiviral effects.
It also inhibits the production of prostaglandins, acting as an anti-inflammatory.
The quercitin can have synergy with the cannabinoids too by increasing the anti-inflammatory effects.
A recent study suggests quercitin may have therapeutic applicability in treating fibromyalgia, due to its anti-inflammatory effects.
As has been shown, cannabis has therapeutic effects in managing fibromyalgia, which could prove the synergy between quercitin and cannabis.
Similarly, quercitin inhibits the monoamine oxidase enzyme (MAO), which is involved in the metabolism of neurotransmitters and pharmaceuticals.
This factor should be to be taken into account, with regards to possible interactions with particular pharmaceuticals.

Luteonin and Orientin (Luteonin Glucoside)

Both luteonin and orientin have shown to have pharmacologic effects as antioxidants, anti-inflammatories, antibiotics and as agents against cancer in preclinical studies.
They can also have synergy with cannabinoids.

In this article, we have verified that there are other types of active substances in the cannabis plant, and that the effects of this plant could clearly be influenced by the possible synergy between the effects of cannabinoids, terpenes and flavonoids.

Therefore, the anti-inflammatory effect of the cannabis plant could be most affected by a probable synergy, due to the fact that the three groups of compounds converge in similar or complementary mechanisms of action.

Fundación CANNA

 

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Terpenes - The Endocannabinoid System

To fully understand the encocannabinoid system and its role in the physiological and pathological processes of body systems, we must pay attention to the way our body is formed and what we really are.

Our body is an independent entity capable of receiving certain information from the outside world through the senses and then interpreting and elaborating on it in the brain, to finally allow the rest of our body to interact with such data.
This arrangement allows our body to meet needs such as feeding or reproduction, in addition to being aware of both its own self and the outside world.
Something much more complex to understand, is the fact that our body is formed by a colony of millions of cells.
Each cell is independent, has its individual needs for energy sources and has its own biochemical process to obtain it.
These cells are organised according to their function and structural diversity, thus building the different organs.
Each organ plays an specific function in the human body in order to keep the whole organism alive.
The organ in charge of keeping and controlling the different organ functioning, as well as processing the outside stimuli, is the brain.

We could say that the endocannabinoid system is a intercellular communication system.
It basically is a neurotransmission system, although it is much more than that, as it can also be found in other organs and body tissues than the brain.
The endocannabinoid system seems to be the enhanced version of an ancestral intercellular communication system found in plants too; the arachidonic acid system.
In fact, the endocannabinoids' nature is directly related to arachidonic acid.

Arachidonic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid that participates in the signalling processes of plants and animals.
It regulates the defences against infections and the signalling of stress in plants.
It also controls animal muscle growth, platelet cumpling, vasodilatation and inflammation.

Picture 1

Endocannabinoid System

The endocannabinoid system is formed by both cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids that interact in the same way as a lock and its key (Picture 1).
Cannabinoid receptors are cell membrane proteins that act as the lock of the endocannabinoids, which are endogenous ligands of lipidic nature, produced by the different body cells and that act as a perfect keys that join the receptors.
This activation gives way to changes in the cells that end up in the final actions of the endocannabinoid system over the physiological body processes.
The endocannabinoid system gets involved in a wide variety of physiological processes (i.e. the modulation of the release of neurotransmitters, the regulation of the perception of pain, as well as cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and hepatic functions) that will be explained in further detail later in this article.

The name “endocannabinoid system” makes reference to the fact that this endogenous system is the one affected by the intake of fitocannabinoids, which act as a false key, able to fit the lock of cannabinoid receptors producing a different effect to the one produced by the perfect key, which is represented by the endocannabinoids produced by the body.

Cannabinoids Receptors

The two main receptors that form the endocannabinoid system are the CB1 and CB2 cannabinois receptors.
It has been accepted recently that the orphan receptor GPR55 can be considered as the third receptor for cannabinoid activity.
All these receptors are transmembrane proteins capable of sending out a an extracellular signal into the interior of a cell.

CB1 receptors are metabotropic receptors expressed most abundantly in the brain and their distribution has been widely characterised in humans.
CB1 receptors are highly expressed in the hippocampus, basal ganglia, cortex and cerebellum.
They are less expressed in the amygdala, hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, thalamus, periapeduncular grey matter and the spinal cord, as well as in other brain areas, mainly in the telencephalon and diencephalum.
CB1 receptors are also expressed in several peripheral organs.
Thus, they are present in adipocytes, liver, lungs, smooth muscle, gastrointestinal tract, pancreatic ß -cells, vascular endothelium, reproductive organs, immune system, sensorial peripheral nerves and sympathetic nerves (Picture 2).

Picture 2

The distribution of CB2 receptors is quite different and mainly restricted to the periphery in the immune system cells, such as macrophages, neutrophils, monocytes, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes and microglial cells.
Recently, CB2 receptor expression has also been shown in skin nerve fibres and keratinocytes, bone cells such as osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts, liver and somatostatin secreting cells in the pancreas.
The presence of CB2 receptors has also been demonstrated at the CNS, in astrocytes, microglial cells and brainstem neurons (Picture 2).
There is evidence of staining with the CB2 antibody of human neurons.
The presence of functional CB2 receptors is still debated.
Recent evidences suggest that the CB2 receptor mediates emotional behaviours, such as schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, memory and nociception, supporting the presence of neuronal CB2 receptors or the involvement of glial cells in emotional behaviours.

...CONTINUE...

 

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Endocannabinoids

The endocannabinoids are long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from the membrane phospholipids, specifically from the arachidonic acid.
The two main endocannabinoids are anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG).
Once the anandamide has been synthesised in the cell membrane of the stimulated cell, it is released in the hepatic cleft where it joins the cannabinoid receptors.
After release, anandamide is transported from the synaptic cleft inside the cell through passive diffusion, or by a selective transporter that can be selectively inhibited by different compounds, such as AM404.
However, this transporter has not been yet identified.
At present, it is postulated that anandamide diffuses passively through the membrane and is then cached in the cytoplasm by the Fatty Acid Binding Protein (FABP) and transported to the mitochondrion, where the enzyme that catabolises anandamide, FAAH, is located.

The most abundant endocannabinoid in the brain is 2-AG.
High levels of 2-AG are found in the brain and its concentration is about 200 times higher than anandamide.
2-AG is generated from plasma membrane phospholipids such as anandamide.
The synthesis of 2-AG is mediated mainly by the phospholipase C.
The 2-AG reuptake is taking place by similar mechanisms as anandamide. 2-AG degradation is mainly due to the action of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL).

Other endogenous cannabinoids that have been identified are the 2-arachidonylglycerol ether, also called noladin ether, virodhamine, which has been proposed as an endogenous antagonist of CB1 receptor and N-arachidonoyldopamine (NADA), a vanilloid agonist with CB1 affinity.
Two more endogenous compounds with cannabinomimethic actions, but without affinity for the cannabinoid receptors, are oleylethanolamide (OEA) and palmythoilethanolamine (PEA).
OEA at high concentrations can reduce food intake from a peripheral mechanism.
PEA exerts anti-inflammatory actions blocked by CB2 antagonists, has antiepileptic properties and inhibits the intestinal motility.

Implications of the Endocannabinoids System

The endocannabinoid system has unique characteristics differing from other neurotransmitter systems.
First, the endocannabinoids act as neuromodulators that inhibit the release of other neurotransmitters such as GABA (the main inhibitor neurotransmitter) and glutamate (the main exciter neurotransmitter).
The synapses are the communication between two neurons.
The presynaptic neuron that is the one that releases the neurotransmitters, and the postsynaptic is the one activated by the neurotransmitters.
The endocannabinoids are retrogrades that are released from the postsynaptic neuron.
The postsynaptic neuron, in response to a stimulus, synthesises and releases the endocannabinoids in the synaptic cleft stimulated by the cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic neuron, which inhibits the release of neurotransmitters.
Furthermore, the endocannabinoids are not located in the synaptic vesicles (vesicles placed inside the presynaptic neuron which contains the neurotransmitters), and are synthesised on demand from the membrane phospholipids and immediately released in the synaptic clef (Picture 1).

The main endocannabinoid system's function is the regulation of body homeostasis.
The endocannabinoid system plays an important role in multiple aspects of the neuronal functions, including learning and memory, emotion, addictive like behaviour, feeding and metabolism, pain and neuroprotection. It is also involved in the modulation of different processes at the cardiovascular and immunological levels, among others.
The distribution of the CB1 receptors in the brain correlates with the pharmacological actions of the cannabinoids. Its high density in the basal ganglia is associated with the effects on the locomotor activity already mentioned.
The presence of the receptor in the hippocampus and cortex are related to the effects in learning and memory, and with the psychotropic and antiepileptic properties.
The low toxicity and lethality are related with the low expression of receptors in the brain stem. The endocannabinoid system interacts with multiple neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, histamine, serotonin, glutamate, norepinephrine, prostaglandins and opioid peptides.
The interaction with these neurotransmitters is responsible for most of the pharmacological effects of cannabinoids.
Both synthetic cannabinoids and fitocannabinoids act due to the interaction between the cannabinoid receptors.

The location and distribution of CB1 and CB2 receptors in the immune system, the bone marrow cells and white blood cells, perfectly matches the cannabis immunomodulatory effects.
Depending on the specific cannabinoid, dose and pathophysiology, the endocannabinoid system has immunosupressive or immunostimulant effects, frequently known as “immunomodulatory”, the name that includes all the effects.

The presence of CB1 and CB2 receptors in the organs involved in the intake of nutrients and energy balance such as the liver, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, spleen, skeletal muscle and adipocytes, explains the therapeutic action of cannabinoids on the regulation of energy and food balance.
One of the known applications of Δ9-THC and other compounds that act in the same way at a receptor level, is an increase in hunger and in dietary intake in the case of anorexia produced by H.I.V. or terminal cancer.
In such cases, Δ9-THC can activate CB1 and CB2 peripheral receptors causing the fast intake of blood glucose, which is stored as fat in the adipocytes, and consequently producing an increase in the urge to eat and the amount eaten.
The common sweet cravings resulting from the intake of cannabis can be explained in the same way.
The opposite approach may be considered to reduce dietary intake, that is by blocking CB1 and CB2 peripheral receptors.
The recently banned rimonabant (Acomplia) caused loss weight and a decrease in dietary intake, however, this cannabinoid was withdrawn from the market because it caused depression and suicidal tendencies (Picture 3).

Picture 3

Finally, the above explanation of the fast absorption of blood glucose together with the presence of CB1 receptors in vascular cells explains one of the secondary effects, better known of Δ9-THC; the collapse.
This is the reason why elevating the legs and applying cold water in the neck and wrists of the person concerned help to restore blood pressure in cases of collapse.
At the same time, drinking something sweet helps to restore glucose blood levels which normally contributes to the recovery of the person affected.

 

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Testing Methods

Last September, the 7th conference about cannabinoides in medicine took place, organised by the International Association for Cannabinoids Medicine (IACM), of which Fundación CANNA was a bronze sponsor.

The main cannabinoids researches worldwide gathered for this important event. Among them were Raphael Mechoulam, the first to identify cannabinoids as cannabis components, and Dr. Manuel Guzmán, a pioneering Spanish researcher in the study of cannabinoids against cancer cells.

Comparative Evaluation between Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and Gas Chromatography (GC).

There are different chromatography techniques used to identify and determine the concentration of various substances in different types of samples.
All of these techniques are based in the separation and subsequent identification of such substances.
Depending on their quantification accuracy, we can divide them in qualitative, semiquantitative and quantitative techniques.

Qualitative techniques are those which just tell us if a given substance is found in the sample, without being able to specify its concentration level.

Several cannabinoids studies were debated at this conference.
Some of them were introduced orally and others by a poster.
Fundación CANNA took part in two of them and sponsored another one.

There are tests that consist in the use of a substance, which when in contact with a certain drug, it reacts, showing a particular colour. They are frequently used by airport police as a first approach to determine if a passenger is carrying drugs.
Semiquantitative techniques are way to discover the concentration level of the substance that is to be identified, however, they are not able to quantify it accurately.
In short, semiquantitative techniques tell us if the quantity of the substance, but not its concentration.
Quantitative techniques provide this kind of information.

There are TLC kits available on the market for domestic analysis of the plants, so that we can know the cannabinoids that they contain.
It esentially isolates the cannabinoids in a chromatography plate, on which they will subsequently visualised as spots.

The way the isolated substances are quantified, is by measuring the size of the spots.
To do this, the commercial kit contains templates with spots printed in different sizes, along with their matching cannabinoid concentration. Thus, to quantify the cannabinoids in a sample it is necessary to compare the size of the spot observed, to those in the template.

In order to compare both methods, different samples with different cannabinoid concentrations were analysed with the Alpha-CAT commercial kit and the gas chromatography test.

Results showed that the TLC commercial kit is a useful tool in identifying the presence or absence of the studied cannabinoid in the sample.
However, only those experienced in the use of the templates are able to obtain semiquantitative data, while more accurate techniques such as the gas or the liquid chromatographies will be needed, in order to obtain quantitative data.

Obtaining Day Neutral Plants with a High CBD Content.

Cannabis plants are classified in two types according to their flowering phase.
Those that flourish when the amount of daylight hours decreases and those that do it when they reach a certain high or at a particular moment in their growth.
The latter are commonly known as autoflowering, although their botanic name is 'day neutral plants'.
The former, are known as 'short day plants'.
There are also plants that flourish when the amount of daylight hours increases and these are called 'long day plants'.

There are several advantages of day neutral cannabis plants.
The main one is that they can be cultivated in different periods to the ones we would choose to grow as short day plants.
Therefore, we can have several outdoor crops throughout the year.
One of the disadvantages of growing seedless plants is that in the industrial cannabis cultivation areas, cross-pollination can happen so the crop will become contaminated by seeds.
Growing autoflowering plants, we can obtain a crop, once the pollination period of these industrial cannabis plants is over.

Due to these, as well as other advantages, those who look for a crop of plants with CBD prevalence find it appealing to do so with autoflowering plants.

In the case that we would like to select seeds with a certain chemotype (plants rich in either CBD or THC or in both of them) from a seed lot, we have to find ways to identify these plants as soon as possible.
For instance, if we know that just a 5% of a seed lot is rich in CBD, we would need to fully grow one hundred of them and then test their buds.
Fully growing one hundred plants needs a large amount of space and time.
However, in their early growing phase, one hundred plants can be held in small pots, occupying much less space.
Therefore, if we could know which plants have the desired chemotype, we would save a great amount of time and space.
This can be achieved by what is known as 'early selection', which consists in the testing of the plant leaves when they are about thirty days old using the gas chromatography method.
It is common to use the leaves of the fourth knot in this test.

A disadvantage found by breeders who want to work with autoflowering, is that these type of plants cannot be kept in a vegetative state indefinitely.
On this basis, given the principles of autoflowering, once the flowering has progressed, we cannot use those plants as male parentals. Therefore we cannot wait until the flowering happens to select those that have a particular chemotype.
By early selection, we can select autoflowering plants that have the desired chemotype and use them as male or female parentals to produce feminised seeds.

This research was conducted by Grassomatic and CBD Crew, while Fundación CANNA developed this early selection technique that permitted this breeding process, wherein day neutral plants with CBD prevalence were obtained.

Study about Cannabis Social Clubs as Source of Data.

Fundación CANNA sponsored Dr. Javier Pedraza's study, which shows that relevant evidence about the consumption of cannabis for therapeutic reasons can be extracted from the testimonies of cannabis social clubs partners.
The data provided by patients shows that most of them consume cannabis via smoking, although there are those who use it orally or sublingually.
Their intake was typically less than 1 gr. a day and they did not increase the dose in the last three months of consumption.
Most of them also informed their doctors about it.

 

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Comparative Study for the Quantification of THC, CBD and CBN..

..using alpha-CAT TLC Method and GC-FID

By Sébastien Béguerie & Ignacio García
7th International Conference on Cannabinoids in Medicine
IACM, Cologne, Germany, September 27-28, 2013

Introduction

• Medicinal Cannabis consumption all over the world is increasing which stress the need for risk prevention to understand cannabinoids therapeutical values and potential side effects. Thus it becomes important to test every cannabinoid matrix for its dosage (Grant and al., 2012).
• A wide variety of methodologies has been recommended for the determination of marijuana samples or Cannabis plants: Thin layer Chromatography (TLC), Optimum Performance Laminar Chromatography (OPLC), High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas Chromatography (GC) with Mass Spectometry (MS), capillary electro-chromatography, time-resolved fluoro-immunological method, immunoassay, etc... Most of these techniques require heavy and costly instruments and a lot of time (Galand et al, 2004).
• It is mandatory to ensure traceability in production. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires that all pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and food companies that adhere do not test medical Cannabis raw materials or provide cannabinoids dosage information of derived products, leaving patients in the dark about what they're inhaling or ingesting. (Steve Kilts, 2012).
• Semi-quantification by densitometry with TLC analysis methods have been performed (Fischedick et al, 2009).
• TLC can be the method of choice if the target is to carry on a big number of samples in a rapid, visual and simultaneous. Unlike the comparison of two samples in order to assess whether they are the same (or different), when quantitative analysis is essential, assessment of origin is qualitative, since the sample under study and the reference samples are, in fact, different. There is thus little point in using more powerful techniques such as
  HPLC as the quantitative information provided is likely to confuse the picture (Baker et al, 1980).
• TLC is a low-cost method for cannabinoid analysis and approved by the United Nation Office on Drugs and Crimes (UNODC) for Cannabis routine
  control of cannabinoid content and of cannabis origin (Laboratory and Scientific Section UNODC, 2009).

Alpha-CAT (Cannabinoid Analysis Test) enable Cannabinoid spot to be calibrated by, taking ratio of pixel counting/surface area within each cannabinoid % range by using Photoshop and Excel computer programs.
It is obtained a regression curve which showed a linear correlation.
From the regression line of CBD, CBN, THC, THCV, CBG and CBC; spot area calibration charts were designed as rulers to have an handy and visual way to measure % according to spot size revealed on TLC plate.

In order to verify how accurate cannabinoids % can be read with the alpha-CAT's rulers, it was performed a blind comparative study by using the GC-FID apparatus, property of Fundación CANNA, and alpha-CAT TLC kit for the quantification of THC, CBD and CBN.

Materials and Methods

GC-FID conditions: 50 mg of dried and homogenized inflorescences were extracted with 2000 μl of a 9:1 methanol:chloroform mixture and 0.2 g/l of Phenanthrene and samples were sonicated for 15 minutes in an ultrasonic bath.
An aliquot of 200 μl of the extraction was transferred to a chromatography vial with 1000 μl of methanol.
The cannabinoids content was analyzed in a GC with FID detector.
The quantification was performed using a calibration curve which was constructed using the ratio of the areas between the internal standard and various concentrations of cannabinoids reference standards.
CBN was used for the calibration instead of THC (Poortman van Der Meer et al, 1999).
The method allows a good separation of the cannabinoids CBD, CBC, THC, CBG and CBN.

Graph 1: alpha-CAT results

Alpha-CAT conditions: 100mg of dried and homogenized inflorescences were extracted with a solvent mixture that will be called “Test fluid” for 2 minutes and was transferred with a 2 μl capillary tube on a 5x10 cm plate pre-coated silica gel (TLC F254).
Decarboxylation was achieved at 150°C for 40 seconds using alpha-CAT ‘s heating device and alignment tool.
Plates were developed and colored by using Fast Blue B salt dye.
Quantification was performed by reading the correspondent cannabinoid percentages using alpha-CAT cannabinoids rulers. (picture1).

4 homogenized batches of different cannabis varieties were used for this comparative study. 3 samples of each batch were analyzed by TLC and 3 by GC/FID.
The laboratory procedures were done at CF location and the TLC results were blind tested, carried on by plate image scans to alpha-CAT laboratory head quarter’s email for cannabinoid quantification reading alpha-CAT with its correspondent cannabinoids rulers.

Picture 1: alpha-CAT densitometry method, using alpha-CAT cannabinoid calibration %

Discussion

The average percentages of each sample were compared.
Differences between 15,40% and 48,82% were detected in quantifying THC and a 34,25% in quantifying CBD when comparing the two methods.
The ratio of THC:CBD was proportionally comparable (Graph 2).
When CBD and CBN were below 1%, there was an incoherence in terms of quantification, even though they were detected properly.
This was the first straight forward comparative study between GC-FID and the TLC alpha-CAT's protocol.

Picture 2: GC-FID cannabinoids peaks of identification and quantification

Alpha-CAT's testing method has shown to be a valid qualitative tool for cannabinoid detection and gives reproducible results.
However, only technicians well trained with alpha-CAT's kit method can obtain semi quantitative results by using the alpha-CAT’s cannabinoids rulers.
Gas or Liquid chromatographic analysis need to be used to quantify precisely cannabinoids, and other important secondary active compounds present in Cannabis.

Graph 2: GC-FIC results

References

• Igor Grant, Hampton Atkinson, Ben Gouaux, and Barth Wilsey. Medical Marijuana: Clearing Away the Smoke. Open Neurol J. 2012; 6: p. 18–25.
• Galand N, Ernouf D, Montigny F. Separation and identification of cannabis components by different planar chromatography techniques (TLC, AMD, OPLC). J Chromatogr Sci. 2004 Mar; 42(3) : p.130-134.
• Steve Kilts, vice president of CannLab, Denver, CO, USA. Industry Needs to Start Taking Medical Cannabis Testing, Labeling Seriously. Medical Marijuana Business Daily, www.mmjbusinessdaily.com, 2nd of October 2012.
• Justin T Fischedick, Ronald Glas, Arno Hazekamp, Rob Verpoorte. A qualitative and quantitative HPTLC densitometry method for the analysis of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. Phytochem Anal. 2009; 20(5): p.421-426.
• P. B. Baker, T. A. Gough, B. J. Taylor. Illicitly imported Cannabis products: some physical and chemical features indicative of their origin. Bulletin UNODC. 1980, p.31-40.
• Laboratory and Scientific Section UNODC, Recommended Methods for the Identification and Analysis of Cannabis and Cannabis Products, United Nations, publications 2009, p.36-39.
• Poortman-van der Meer, A.J. and Huizer, H. A contribution to the improvement of accuracy in the quantitation of THC. Forensic Sci int 1999. 101, 1-8

 

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Pollutants in Cannabis

Cannabis must be free of waste products and pollutants which might pose a short or long term health risk.
Plants can be exposed to several types of chemical and microbiological pollutants during the whole production process, which last from cultivation till packaging.
This needs to be avoided.

Chemical Pollutants. Heavy Metals

Some heavy metals that can be found in vegetables, and particularly in cannabis, are lead, cadmium, mercury and chromium.
These metals accumulate in parts of the body, and are not easily eliminated.
When certain levels of these toxins are reached, metabolic imbalances are triggered, leading to poisoning.
Lead poisoning is called saturnism and is characterised by the accumulation or this metal in the blood, soft tissues and bones, causing certain physiological disorders and even death.

Not every plant can tolerate being grown with high levels of these pollutants.
However, the cannabis plant is quite resistant to their influence.
This feature, together with the fact that it is fast growing, has lead to the study of cannabis for phytoremediation.
Phytoremediation consists in growing plants in polluted soil so that they will absorb the heavy metals and other pollutants, ending up with soil decontamination.
The subsequent treatment of these plants allows for the controlled elimination of pollutants.
It can be also used as raw material to manufacture certain products not intended for human consumption.
The capacity cannabis has for absorbing radioactive caesium has also been demonstrated.

The accumulation of these metals in plants is due to the cultivation in contaminated soil.

Non-Metal Chemical Pollutants: Arsenic, Nitrates and Nitrites

Penicillium. Image courtesy of Peter Halasz

Water contamination with arsenic is much more common than we believe.
In fact, there are several areas in Spain that have water contaminated with arsenic.
The most recent case has taken place in Galicia, where gold mining caused waters to be contaminated with arsenic.
Gold in these mines is part of arsenopyrite, which is pulverised and cleaned to isolate the precious metal.
Arsenic consumption is related to skin cancer and other ailments.
Plants naturally absorb arsenic and store it in their tissues.
This is the reason why it is necessary to avoid using wells or groundwater when it is not known if this element will be present in them.
Soil could also be contaminated with arsenic.

Nitrites are one way for nitrogen to be present in plants.
Crops demand a certain amount of nitrogen for optimum growing.
When we add fertiliser with organic nitrogen, this is transformed in the soil into ammonium, nitrites and nitrates, in a process known as nitrification.
Much of the nitrogen applied to our plants is absorbed as nitrates, although large amounts of ammonium and nitrites can also be absorbed.

When nitrates access our body, some of them can change into nitrites.
The combination of nitrite with certain organic amine can produce substances with great carcinogenic potential, known as nitrosamines.

Biological Toxins

Pink Mildew. Image courtesy of Truman State University

Toxins of biological origin can be found within chemical organic pollutants.
These are produced by microorganisms (fungi and bacteria).
Some bacteria have such toxins in their cellular membrane and are known as endotoxins.

When speaking about fungi these toxins are referred to as mycotoxines and, generally, are substances segregated by these organisms.

Pesticide Residues

Cannabis for consumption should not contain pesticide residues.
There is the belief that observing the security time frame marked in the pesticide's packaging should be enough to avoid residues in the plant.
This is not always necessarily true.

There is always a list of authorised crops in the packaging of chemical pesticides, which specifies those which the pesticide can be used on.
The reason why it cannot be applied to other cultivations is the maximum limit of residues. Depending of the plant species treated with the pesticide, the final product will show different amounts of residues.

There are no studies that indicate the amount of remaining residues after having applied a certain pesticide.
Therefore, there is no way of knowing how much residue we ingest.
The security time frame detailed on the label does not apply to cannabis as it only applies to the products listed on the label.

...CONTINUE...

 

[salmonetin]

Biological Pollutants

Biological pollutants are those microorganisms (bacteria, fungi and yeasts) that can be found in the final product.

During cultivation, plants can develop several plant pathogens, mainly fungi.
However, although these fungi only attack plant species and are not normally human pathogens, they can cause severe allergic reactions. There is a disease known as cannabinosis that is specific to those who work with hemp fibre and are constantly inhaling the particles suspended in the air.
The main symptom is a serious respiratory failure.
Some researches point to the microorganisms that can be found in such particles as the ones responsible for cannabinosis.
Some plant pathogens produce toxins, as happens with Trichothecium roseum also known as pink mildew.
A final product destined to be consumed, should contain the minimum amount of these plant pathogens.

In EEUU, a study was carried out to show what type of microorganisms could be found in the environment of indoor cannabis crops.
The results showed that there were up to 100 times more spores of fungi of Penicillium genus in indoor crop environments than in outdoor ones.
These fungi are mainly found in soil and substrata, however, their spores can be easily released into the environment.
Although some of these fungi are use to make cheese, some others produce toxins that can cause serious health problems.
Nonetheless, it was discovered that the handling of the crops for the manicure, drying, etc. caused such release of spores that could reach up to 500,000 spores per m2.
The research of the study recommends using masks during the handling of the crop as such a high concentration of spores can cause allergic reactions and hypersensitivity to workers [1].

Escherichia coli

Polluting Microorganisms
Escherichia coli. is a bacterium mainly found in animal intestines and excretions.
Even though there are a huge number of strains which are not pathogenic, there are many others which can cause severe diseases and diarrhoea.
There are also strains that produce toxins.

The fact that these strains are found in animal excretions means that it can also be found in the resulting manure, compost and fertilisers made from them.
Therefore, a way of contaminating the plant is by using these type of fertilisers.
It could be because the plant comes into contact with it or because, when we cut it, we place the plant in soil previously treated with contaminated manure, compost or fertilisers.

The contact with excretions coming from domestic animals such as dogs, cats and mice can also lead to contamination.

Genus Salmonella. Similarly to E. coli, they are enterobacteria found in animal excretions.
There are several strains which cause serious diseases in humans.
There have been cases of poisoning due to Salmonella through contaminated cannabis, as happened in EEUU, in 1981, when 85 cases of enteritis provoked by Salmonella were registered. 71% of people in these cases had been in contact with cannabis, where analysis showed positive for Salmonella munchen. [2]

Both E. coli and Salmonella are bacteria which have to reach the digestive tract in order to cause the infection.
Thus, in the cases of ingestion of cannabis, the risk is immediate.
To those who consume cannabis by inhalation, the main risk lies in the handling of it, i.e when the plant material is shredded to make a cigarette.
In this case, the fingers are contaminated with the bacterium, so if we touch our mouth or any food afterwards, without having cleaned our hands first, there will be a high risk of infection.

Salmonella

Genus Aspergillus. These are some of the most dangerous kinds of fungi to be found.
This is not just because of their capacity to grow inside the organism, but also because of the production of high power carcinogenic mycotoxins, known as aflatoxins.
It is a fungus that can be found everywhere and its spores are constantly inhaled by people.
In general, this is not a problem, however, when it comes to sensitive people, or people with certain pathologies that cause a weakening of the immune system, it can be the reason for a disease known as aspergillosis.
This disease consists in fungus growing in the lungs and the subsequent reaction of the body covering it with cells.
This produces a mass called aspergilloma, which will affect the organs.

Cases of aspergillosis in cannabis users have been reported, as the spores are easily inhaled with each inhalation.
This fungus mainly affects cannabis grown in conditions with a high level of humidity, or cannabis that has been stored in an environment of high humidity and heat.

 

[salmonetin]

Reasons for Cannabis Testing

Relevance of Test Results

With the increase in the number of Cannabis Social Clubs in Spain, the need for a clean, safe, high quality cannabis becomes rather important, especially for those clubs focused in medical use or those with members who need to have access to cannabis for medical reasons. A high quality, pesticide and microorganism free cannabis can not be guaranteed without tests that reveal its chemical composition. Knowing the different cannabinoids levels is rather useful as it will be easier to choose the variety that suits us better.

Fundación CANNA works with the most advanced technology to be able to offer accurate results:

• Potency test (cannabinoid's profile) carried out by gas chromatography and by optimum performance liquid chromatography too, if needed
• Terpenoid test with gas chromatography with mass spectral data
• Microbiological test
• Pesticide detection

Our laboratory results are better because they offer more information about cannabis, fungi, mycotoxins, pesticides and potency. There is no other organisation offering this services to the public.

Types of Tests

• • Pesticide Test
    
    
    
    AVAILABLE SHORTLY
    Pesticides used in cultivation operations can remain present in the final product. These are highly toxic and may cause damage in small doses, especially in those individuals who use cannabis as a medicine.
    
    
  • Microbiological Test
    
    
    
    Mould is everywhere. 85% of cannabis tested showed traces of mould. Some kinds of mould are dangerous to humans. Most people do not realise how easily can a plant be infected by mould, and that its residues are present in what they smoke. Thus, a microbiological examination is recommended.
    
    
  • Cannabinoids Test
    
    
    
    Knowing the different cannabinoids levels is fundamental to choosing the correct variety, as well as to determine the quantity to take.
    
    
  • Terpenoids Test
    
    
    
    Besides the cannabinoids test, the terpenoids in different varieties of cannabis can also be analysed. These compounds are important factors that affect both the flavour and the effects the cannabinoids cause in our body.

http://www.fundacion-canna.es/en

Salud..os..

 

[salmonetin]

Here is one.
I was bored, might not be perfect.
good luck with the rest.

Cannabinoid Profile: Cannabidiolic Acid (CBDA)

0:01
do you know your medicine?
0:05
etc etc

...well... ...my regular traduction for your transcrip.. ...thanks again Epicfail...

0:01
Conoces tu Medicina?
0:05
Weed Maps Y Laboratorios SC traen una Serie Educativa sobre la Ciencia del Cannabis Limpia y Segura.
El Perfil Cannabinoide de hoy es sobre el Acido Cannabidiólico (CBDA).
0:19
El CBDA O Acido Carboxilico Cannabidiol
0:27
es un Cannabinoide Acido. Los Cannabinoides Acidos son lo que en realidad son producidos por la planta.
0:34
es un precursor del CBD o Cannabidiol. es la Forma Acida, y de nuevo al igual que los cambios de THCA a THC en el Proceso de Calentamiento.
0:43
El CBDA cambia a CDB con el Proceso de Calentamiento.
0:46
curiosamente también se ha encontrado que bastante CBDA tiene
0:50
algunas Propiedades Propias y una de las Propiedades que ha sido encontrada que tienen
0:55
es lo que llamamos
0:55
Antiproliferativo que significa que ayuda a Prevenir
0:59
Células, especialmente que Proliferen las Células Cancerosas.
1:02
también parece tener algúnas Propiedades
1:06
Antiinflamatorias. no se han realizado muchos estudios sobre
1:10
el CBDA pero hay algunos pacientes que lo usan por sus Propiedades Anti-Inflamatorias y
1:15
Propiedades Anti-Tumorales y otra vez se está usando en Forma Cruda, en forma de CBDA
1:19
y por lo general Procesados en Jugo/s o algún tipo de alimento Sin Calentarlo
1:25
y tambien para que se mantenga en esa forma de materia prima natural sin cambiar
1:28
el CDB. sin duda que merece mucha más investigación
1:32
ya que puede tener beneficios más allá de
1:36
lo que ya sabemos.
1:39
el CBDA es una parte de la Clase Acida de los Cannabinoides incluyendo el THCA el CBCA
1:45
o el THCVA. los Acidos Cannabinoides se producen en la planta desde
1:49
un precursor común conocido como Acido Cannabigerólico (CBGA)
1:53
el Acido Cannabigerólico es CBGA tres enzimas diferentes haran reacciones catalizadas
1:58
que haran CBDA
2:01
desde CVGA con la sintasa
2:05
CBDA que es una de las Enzimas llamadas ... Enzimas que podrian permitir
2:08
a las Plantas de Cannabis o a cualquier ser vivo hacer nuevos productos químicos
2:13
en condiciones que de otra manera no soportarian esa química que se produce.
2:18
aquí tenemos la Vía de Síntesis en la Planta por la que
2:20
el CBDA se produce, comenzamos con el Pirofosfato de Geranilo y
2:24
el Acido Olivetolico que se combinan en otra Reacción Catalizada por la Enzima
2:28
para formar el Acido Cannabigerólico o CBGA. esta es la estructura del
2:32
Acido Cannabigerólico en ella ves esta larga cadena de moléculas de Carbono
2:35
estas moléculas de Carbono son capaces de doblarse y formar anillos
2:39
y otras estructuras que
2:42
permitiran que sea el Precursor de todos estos otros compuestos que vemos
2:46
el compuesto de ratio de interés actual es el CBDA
2:49
que se fabrica por la Sintasa CBDA y aquí está la estructura de la misma.
2:52
es muy similar al THC que todos reconocemos
2:55
excepto para el THCA en el que este anillo esta cerrado
2:59
y con el CBDA el anillo está abierto y
3:03
umm tenemos este Acido Carboxílico COOH por aquí
3:06
el COOH se desprende
3:09
alrededor de los 80 Grados Celsius y se dará a conocer a sí mismo como Dióxido de Carbono
3:14
y forma el CDB.
3:16
Laboratorios SC hacen pruebas para CBDA utilizando Cromatografía Líquida de Alta Resolución
3:19
utilizamos este sobre el otro metodo que es la Práctica Común
3:23
GC o Cromatografía de Gases. el problema con la Cromatografía de Gases es que utiliza Calor en el
3:28
Proceso y como dije
3:29
el Calor coge CBDA y lo Transforma en CDB
3:32
así que el problema con la Cromatografía de Gases es que no puedes conseguir ninguna información
3:36
sobre la Cantidad de CBDA que está realmente en la planta y que es muy importante saber
3:41
porque hay muy diferentes Efectos
3:44
en el cuerpo entre el CBDA y el CDB, especialmente si estás comiendo tus productos
3:49
si tu
3:50
no estás fumando Cannabis no vas a
3:54
convertir ese CBDA en CBD, así que está pasando por su cuerpo
3:58
como CBDA. con la información sobre los pacientes que usan CBD se puede hacer una
4:01
decisión mucho más informada sobre los Cannabinoides que decidan ser ingerido en su
4:05
cuerpo y cuáles son los Efectos que el Cannabis va a tener sobre ellos.
4:07
no ha habido suficiente investigación sobre el CBDA, el CDB ha recibido un buen poco de investigación
4:12
los resultados sobre el CBDA que están ahí fuera son bastante prometedores
4:16
así que espero que con las pruebas que los Laboratorios SC están haciendo aquí para inspirar a más
4:20
Investigadores
4:20
y Criadores. paciencia y tomar nota del CBDA y realmente desbloquear
4:26
el verdadero potencial del Cannabinoide


...when I have time I will try to do the subtitle of video...

Salud..os..

 

[salmonetin]

...more info... ...in spanish... sorry.. ....maybe a bit of old info... ...not actualized...

Guía Básica sobre los Cannabinoides SEIC Pdf

Actualización sobre el Potencial Terapéutico de los Cannabinoides SEIC Pdf

Informe Health Canada sobre el Potencial Terapéutico de los Cannabionides (Versión Inglés) SEIC Pdf

Aspectos Psiquiátricos del Consumo de Cannabis SEIC Pdf

Estructura de los Cannabinoides (Derivados de la Planta, Naturales, Sintéticos) SEIC Pdf

Receptores de Cannabinoides SEIC Pdf

Vías de Señalización Acopladas a Receptores CB1 de Cannabinoides en Células Neurales SEIC Pdf

Acciones de los Cannabinoides sobre los Receptores Activados por Proliferadores de Peroxisomas (PPARs) SEIC Pdf

Fisiología del Sistema Endocannabinoide (General) SEIC Pdf

Papel del SEC en Control del Apetito SEIC Pdf

Papel del SEC como Modulador Metabólico SEIC Pdf

¿Papel del SEC en el Control de la Neurogénesis en Cerebro Adulto? SEIC Pdf

Cannabinoides y Alzheimer SEIC Pdf

Cannabinoides e Inflamación SEIC Pdf

Cannabinoides y Cáncer (General) SEIC Pdf

Cannabinoides y Efectos Paliativos en Cáncer SEIC Pdf

Cannabinoides y Efectos Inhibidores del Crecimiento Tumoral SEIC Pdf

Cannabinoides y Vías de Señalización Implicadas en la Inhibición del Crecimiento Tumoral SEIC Pdf

Efectos Adversos de los Cannabinoides (General) SEIC Pdf

Alteraciones Psiquiátricas Asociadas a la Utilización de Cannabinoides SEIC Pdf

Salud..os..

 

[salmonetin]

Cannabinoid and Terpene Info
Posted by Skunk Pharm Research,LLC.

What exactly are the Essential Oils that we are extracting from the Cannabis Plant, and what are their Properties?
Here is a nifty list that I scored off ICMag, posted by Spurr,
who used http://cannabis-med.org/data/pdf/2001-03-04-7.pdf as his information source:

∆-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Boiling Point: 157ºC / 314.6ºF
Properties: Euphoriant, Analgesic, Antiinflammatory, Antioxidant, Antiemetic

Cannabidiol (CBD)
Boiling Point: 160 – 180ºC / 320 – 356ºF
Properties: Anxiolytic, Analgesic, Antipsychotic, Antiinflammatory, Antioxidant, Antispasmodic

Cannabinol (CBN)
Boiling Point: 185ºC / 365ºF
Properties: Oxidation, breakdown, product, Sedative, Antibiotic

Cannabichromene (CBC)
Boiling Point: 220ºC / 428ºF
Properties: Antiinflammatory, Antibiotic, Antifungal

Cannabigerol (CBG)
Boiling Point: MP52
Properties: Antiinflammatory, Antibiotic, Antifungal

∆-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (∆-8-THC)
Boiling Point: 175 – 178ºC / 347 - 352.4ºF
Properties: Resembles ∆-9-THC, Less psychoactive, More stable Antiemetic

Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV)
Boiling Point: < 220ºC / <428ºF
Properties: Analgesic, Euphoriant

Terpenoid Essential Oils, their Boiling Points, and Properties

ß-Myrcene
Boiling Point: 166 – 168ºC / 330.8 - 334.4ºF
Properties: Analgesic. Antiinflammatory, Antibiotic, Antimutagenic

ß-Caryophyllene
Boiling Point: 119ºC / 246.2ºF
Properties: Antiinflammatory, Cytoprotective (gastric mucosa), Antimalarial

d-Limonene
Boiling Point: 177ºC / 350.6ºF
Properties: Cannabinoid agonist?, Immune potentiator, Antidepressant, Antimutagenic

Linalool
Boiling Point: 198ºC / 388.4ºF
Properties: Sedative, Antidepressant, Anxiolytic, Immune potentiator

Pulegone
Boiling Point: 224ºC / 435.2ºF
Properties: Memory booster?, AChE inhibitor, Sedative, Antipyretic

1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol)
Boiling Point: 176ºC / 348.8ºF
Properties: AChE inhibitor, Increases cerebral, blood flow, Stimulant, Antibiotic, Antiviral, Antiinflammatory, Antinociceptive

a-Pinene
Boiling Point: 156ºC / 312.8ºF
Properties: Antiinflammatory, Bronchodilator, Stimulant, Antibiotic, Antineoplastic, AChE inhibitor

a-Terpineol
Boiling Point: 217 – 218ºC / 422.6 - 424.4ºF
Properties: Sedative, Antibiotic, AChE inhibitor, Antioxidant, Antimalarial

Terpineol-4-ol
Boiling Point: 209ºC / 408.2ºF
Properties: AChE inhibitor. Antibiotic

p-Cymene
Boiling Point: 177ºC / 350.6ºF
Properties: Antibiotic, Anticandidal, AChE inhibitor

Flavonoid and Phytosterol Components, their Boiling Points, and Properties

Apigenin
Boiling Point: 178ºC / 352.4ºF
Properties: Anxiolytic, Antiinflammatory, Estrogenic

Quercetin
Boiling Point: 250ºC / 482ºF
Properties: Antioxidant, Antimutagenic, Antiviral, Antineoplastic

Cannflavin A
Boiling Point: 182ºC / 359.6ºF
Properties: COX inhibitor, LO inhibitor

ß-Sitosterol
Boiling Point: 134ºC / 273.2ºF
Properties: Antiinflammatory, 5-a-reductase, inhibitor

......


Decarboxylation
Posted by Skunk Pharm Research,LLC.

Cannabis produces phyto cannabinoids in a carboxylic acid form that are not orally active at least at the CB-1 receptor sites, because they don’t readily pass the blood brain barrier in their polar form.

To enable them to pass the blood brain barrier, they must first be decarboxylated, to remove the COOH carboxyl group of atoms, which exits in the form of H20 and CO2.

Decarboxylation occurs naturally with time and temperature, as a function of drying, but we can shorten the amount of time required considerably, by adding more heat.

The more heat, the faster it occurs, within reasonable ranges, and in fact occurs spontaneously when the material is burned or vaporized.

There is another mechanism at play however, which suggests that we need to control the decarboxylation temperatures carefully.

When we heat cannabis to convert the THCA and CBDA into THC and CBD, we are also converting THC to CBN at a faster rate.

At about 70% decarboxylation, we actually start converting THC to CBN at a faster rate than we are converting THCA to THC, so as you can see by the following graph, after about 70% decarboxylation, the levels of THC actually start to fall sharply.

That of course means that the CBN also begins to rise and the medication is becoming more sedative.

Thank you Jump 117 for this excellent graph!

Decarboxylation graph
http://skunkpharmresearch.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/decarboxylation-graph.pdf

Another fly in the ointment, is that we can never know for sure exactly what the starting state of decarboxylation is, so the times at temperature shown on the graphs are an average.

We can’t expect dry material placed in an oven at any given temperature to be that uniform temperature throughout instantly upon placing it in a heated oven, nor know for sure the state of decarboxylation by simple observation.

Decarboxylating plant material, also alters the taste (roasted/toasted), which some find less agreeable, and of course decarboxylating also evaporates away the smaller Monoterpenes and Sequiterpenes alcohols, phenols, ketones, aldehydes, ethers, and esters.

The good news is that it is dirt simple to monitor the state of cannabis oil decarboxylation placed in a 121ºC / 250ºF hot oil bath, because you can watch the CO2 bubble production.

Just like the curves suggest, CO2 bubble production will proceed at its own observable rate.

By keeping the puddle of oil lightly stirred on the bottom and in the corners of the pot (I use a bamboo skewer), so as to keep the bubbles broken free and floating to the top, you can tell exactly when the bubble formation suddenly tapers off at the top of the curve.

That is the point that we take it out of the oil for maximum head effect, and we leave it in until all bubbling stops, if we want a more sedative night time med.

Here are a couple pictures of what oil looks like when boiling off the residual butane.

Residual butane or alcohol produces larger, randomly sized bubbles, and is fully purged, when they cease.

I am seemingly missing the middle picture of the CO2 bubbles, so I will add it later, but the second picture shows what fully decarboxylated oil looks like.

Residual solvent bubbles above:

Quiescent oil.


Salud..os..